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Coblentz, W. (June 1925). "Temperature Estimates of the Planet Mars". Astronomische Nachrichten. 224 (22): 361–378. Bibcode: 1925AN....224..361C. doi: 10.1002/asna.19252242202. hdl: 2027/mdp.39015086551267. S2CID 62806972.

During the southern hemisphere spring, solar heating of dry ice deposits at the south pole leads in places to accumulation of pressurized CO 2 gas below the surface of the semitransparent ice, warmed by absorption of radiation by the darker substrate. After attaining the necessary pressure, the gas bursts through the ice in geyser-like plumes. While the eruptions have not been directly observed, they leave evidence in the form of "dark dune spots" and lighter fans atop the ice, representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions, and a spider-like pattern of grooves created below the ice by the outrushing gas. [116] [117] (see Geysers on Mars.) Eruptions of nitrogen gas observed by Voyager 2 on Triton are thought to occur by a similar mechanism. Kok, Jasper F.; Renno, Nilton O. (2008). "Electrostatics in Wind-Blown Sand". Physical Review Letters. 100 (1): 014501. arXiv: 0711.1341. Bibcode: 2008PhRvL.100a4501K. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.014501. PMID 18232774. S2CID 9072006.Because Mars has no oceans and hence no " sea level", a zero-elevation surface had to be selected as a reference level; this is called the areoid [80] of Mars, analogous to the terrestrial geoid. [81] Zero altitude was defined by the height at which there is 610.5 Pa (6.105 mbar) of atmospheric pressure. [82] This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water, and it is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure on Earth (0.006 atm). [83] The large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin for " Mariner Valleys", also known as Agathodaemon in the old canal maps [101]), has a length of 4,000 kilometres (2,500mi) and a depth of up to 7 kilometres (4.3mi). The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the Grand Canyon on Earth is only 446 kilometres (277mi) long and nearly 2 kilometres (1.2mi) deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area, which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse. In 2012, it was proposed that Valles Marineris is not just a graben, but a plate boundary where 150 kilometres (93mi) of transverse motion has occurred, making Mars a planet with possibly a two- tectonic plate arrangement. [102] [103] Holes and caves Streaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age. The streaks can start in a tiny area, then spread out for hundreds of metres. They have been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles in their path. The commonly accepted theories include that they are dark underlying layers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils. [65] Several other explanations have been put forward, including those that involve water or even the growth of organisms. [66] [67] Hauber, E., D. Reiss, M. Ulrich, F. Preusker, F. Trauthan, M. Zanetti, H. Hiesinger, R. Jaumann, L. Johansson, A. Johnsson, S. Van Gaselt, M. Olvmo. 2011. Landscape evolution in Martian mid-latitude regions: insights from analogous periglacial landforms in Svalbard. In: Balme, M., A. Bargery, C. Gallagher, S. Guta (eds). Martian Geomorphology. Geological Society, London. Special Publications: 356. 111–131 a b Spiga, Aymeric; Smith, Isaac (July 1, 2018). "Katabatic jumps in the Martian northern polar regions". Icarus. 308: 197–208. Bibcode: 2018Icar..308..197S. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2017.10.021. ISSN 0019-1035. S2CID 125434957. Archived from the original on May 11, 2022 . Retrieved May 12, 2022.

Garisto, Dan (February 7, 2018). "Massive dust storms are robbing Mars of its water". Science News. Archived from the original on January 24, 2018 . Retrieved January 24, 2018. a b Chang, Kenneth (December 12, 2007). "Mars Rover Finding Suggests Once Habitable Environment". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 5, 2017 . Retrieved April 30, 2010. Many features on Mars, especially in the Ismenius Lacus quadrangle, are thought to contain large amounts of ice. The most popular model for the origin of the ice is climatic change from large changes in the tilt of the planet's rotational axis. At times the tilt has even been greater than 80 degrees. [123] [124] Large changes in the tilt explains many ice-rich features on Mars. Mars is approximately half the diameter of Earth, with a surface area only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land. [2] Mars is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of Earth's mass, resulting in about 38% of Earth's surface gravity. The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by ferric oxide, or rust. [39] It can look like butterscotch; [40] other common surface colors include golden, brown, tan, and greenish, depending on the minerals present. [40] Internal structure

Di Renzo, M.; Urzay, J. (2018). "Aerodynamic generation of electric fields in turbulence laden with charged inertial particles". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 1676. Bibcode: 2018NatCo...9.1676D. doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-03958-7. PMC 5920100. PMID 29700300. Both polar caps are currently accumulating, confirming predicted Milankovich cycling on timescales of ~400,000 and ~4,000,000 years. Soundings by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter SHARAD indicate total cap growth of ~0.24km 3/year. Of this, 92%, or ~0.86mm/year, is going to the north, [118] as Mars' offset Hadley circulation acts as a nonlinear pump of volatiles northward.

Main article: Atmosphere of Mars Planet Mars – most abundant gases – ( Curiosity rover, Sample Analysis at Mars device, October 2012) Low atmospheric pressure [ edit ] Observation since the 1950s has shown that the chances of a planet-wide dust storm in a particular Martian year are approximately one in three. [69] Almeida, Murilo P.; etal. (2008). "Giant saltation on Mars". PNAS. 105 (17): 6222–6226. Bibcode: 2008PNAS..105.6222A. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0800202105. PMC 2359785. PMID 18443302. Harrison, R.G.; Barth, E.; Esposito, F.; Merrison, J.; Montmessin, F.; Aplin, K.L.; Borlina, C.; Berthelier, J.; Deprez G.; Farrel, W.M.; Houghton, M.P.; Renno, N.O.; Nicoll, S.N.; Tripathi, N.; Zimmerman, M. (2016). "Applications of electrified dust and dust devil electrodynamics to Martian atmospheric electricity". Space Sci. Rev. 203 (1–4): 299–345. Bibcode: 2016SSRv..203..299H. doi: 10.1007/s11214-016-0241-8. Archived from the original on September 2, 2019 . Retrieved September 2, 2019. Antares project "Mars Small-Scale Weather" (MSW)". September 23, 2003. Archived from the original on March 3, 2006 . Retrieved July 6, 2019.Honore Flaugergues's 1809 discovery of "yellow clouds" on the surface of Mars is the first known observation of Martian dust storms. [3] Flaugergues also observed in 1813 significant polar-ice waning during Martian springtime. His speculation that this meant that Mars was warmer than Earth proved inaccurate. a b Laskar, J.; Correia, A.; Gastineau, M.; Joutel, F.; Levrard, B.; Robutel, P. (2004). "Long term evolution and chaotic diffusion of the insolation quantities of Mars" (PDF). Icarus. 170 (2): 343–364. Bibcode: 2004Icar..170..343L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.635.2720. doi: 10.1016/j.icarus.2004.04.005. S2CID 33657806. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 12, 2021 . Retrieved July 5, 2019. a b "What happened to early Mars' atmosphere? New study eliminates one theory". Archived from the original on March 27, 2018 . Retrieved March 9, 2018. Krauss, C.E.; Horanyi, M.; Robertson, S. (2006). "Modeling the formation of electrostatic discharges on Mars". J. Geophys. Res. Planets. 111 (E2): E2. Bibcode: 2006JGRE..111.2001K. doi: 10.1029/2004JE002313. NASA Mars Fact Sheet". nasa.gov. 2018. Archived from the original on March 17, 2020 . Retrieved November 1, 2018.