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In open water, frogfishes can swim with strokes of the caudal fin. They also use jet propulsion, often used by younger frogfish. It is achieved by rhythmically gulping water and forcing it out through their gill openings, also called opercular openings, which lie behind their pectoral fins. [10] In 2006, of 4,035 species of amphibians that depend on water during some lifecycle stage, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened. This is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which evidence was insufficient to assess their status. [198] Frog populations have declined dramatically since the 1950s. More than one-third of frog species are considered to be threatened with extinction, and more than 120 species are believed to have become extinct since the 1980s. [199] Among these species are the gastric-brooding frogs of Australia and the golden toad of Costa Rica. The latter is of particular concern to scientists because it inhabited the pristine Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve and its population crashed in 1987, along with about 20 other frog species in the area. This could not be linked directly to human activities, such as deforestation, and was outside the range of normal fluctuations in population size. [200] Elsewhere, habitat loss is a significant cause of frog population decline, as are pollutants, climate change, increased UVB radiation, and the introduction of non-native predators and competitors. [201] A Canadian study conducted in 2006 suggested heavy traffic in their environment was a larger threat to frog populations than was habitat loss. [202] Emerging infectious diseases, including chytridiomycosis and ranavirus, are also devastating populations. [203] [204] Harvey, M. B.; Pemberton, A. J.; Smith, E. N. (2002). "New and poorly known parachuting frogs (Rhacophoridae: Rhacophorus) from Sumatra and Java". Herpetological Monographs. 16: 46–92. doi: 10.1655/0733-1347(2002)016[0046:NAPKPF]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86616385.
Wostl, Elijah, Eric N. Smith, and Robert N. Reed. 2016. Origin and Identity of Fejervarya (Anura: Dicroglossidae) on Guam. Pacific Science 70(2):233-241. https://doi.org/10.2984/70.2.9a b Pough, F. H.; Andrews, R. M.; Cadle, J. E.; Crump, M. L.; Savitsky, A. H.; Wells, K. D. (2003). Herpetology (thirded.). Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0-13-100849-6. Because frog toxins are extraordinarily diverse, they have raised the interest of biochemists as a "natural pharmacy". The alkaloid epibatidine, a painkiller 200 times more potent than morphine, is made by some species of poison dart frogs. Other chemicals isolated from the skins of frogs may offer resistance to HIV infection. [227] Dart poisons are under active investigation for their potential as therapeutic drugs. [228]
Walton, M.; Anderson, B. D. (1988). "The aerobic cost of saltatory locomotion in the fowler's toad ( Bufo woodhousei fowleri)". Journal of Experimental Biology. 136 (1): 273–288. doi: 10.1242/jeb.136.1.273. PMID 3404074. Tatsunori, Seki; Sakae, Kikuyama; Noboru, Yanaihara (1995-10-15). "Morphology of the skin glands of the crab-eating frog: Rana cancrivora". Zoological Science. 12 (5): 623–6. doi: 10.2108/zsj.12.623. S2CID 86285729. Iskandar, Djoko Tjahono (1998). Amfibi Jawa dan Bali. Bogor (Indonesia): Puslitbang Biologi - LIPI. ISBN 979-579-015-3.Ahn, A. N.; Furrow, E.; Biewener, A. A. (2004). "Walking and running in the red-legged running frog, Kassina maculata". Journal of Experimental Biology. 207 (Pt 3): 399–410. doi: 10.1242/jeb.00761. PMID 14691087. Some frogs protect their offspring inside their own bodies. Both male and female pouched frogs ( Assa darlingtoni) guard their eggs, which are laid on the ground. When the eggs hatch, the male lubricates his body with the jelly surrounding them and immerses himself in the egg mass. The tadpoles wriggle into skin pouches on his side, where they develop until they metamorphose into juvenile frogs. [180] The female gastric-brooding frog ( Rheobatrachus sp.) from Australia, now probably extinct, swallows her fertilized eggs, which then develop inside her stomach. She ceases to feed and stops secreting stomach acid. The tadpoles rely on the yolks of the eggs for nourishment. After six or seven weeks, they are ready for metamorphosis. The mother regurgitates the tiny frogs, which hop away from her mouth. [181] The female Darwin's frog ( Rhinoderma darwinii) from Chile lays up to 40 eggs on the ground, where they are guarded by the male. When the tadpoles are about to hatch, they are engulfed by the male, which carries them around inside his much-enlarged vocal sac. Here they are immersed in a frothy, viscous liquid that contains some nourishment to supplement what they obtain from the yolks of the eggs. They remain in the sac for seven to ten weeks before undergoing metamorphosis, after which they move into the male's mouth and emerge. [182] Defence The mildly toxic Ranitomeya imitator Strawberry poison-dart frog contains numerous alkaloids which deter predators. Few traces of frogfishes remain in the fossil record, though Antennarius monodi is known from the Miocene of Algeria and Eophryne barbuttii is known from the Eocene of Italy. a b Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2009). " Histrio histrio " in FishBase. Sep 2009 version. a b Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). A Natural History of Amphibians. Princeton University Press. pp.67–69. ISBN 978-0-691-03281-8.
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